repairing terracotta block foundationrepairing terracotta block foundation

Edison Coatings, Inc. Products are manufactured in the United States of America from Components Originating in the United States, Canada, Italy, Half bricks or similar cosmetic replacement techniques are never utilized by MPS. Sixty percent of all homes built on expansive soils suffer from foundation distress. The most commonly used method of correcting smaller slabs of sunken concrete, such as residential slabs, driveways, sidewalks, swimming pool decks, etc. To make the problem worse, Oklahoma often experiences extreme drought (remember learning about the Dust Bowl?) Edison Coatings, Inc. assumes no responsibility for advice given, results You can install vertical small I-beams that support the bowed block walls. STEP 3: CRACK REPAIR. The combination provides a final finish which closely matches the original material. document.getElementById("ak_js_1").setAttribute("value",(new Date()).getTime()); Subscribe to the FREE Ask the Builder newsletter to receive professional advice for your home. Unusually dry or wet weather can cause movement in the underlying soil. These may include speckles, smears, mottling or even multiple layers of glaze of different colors. Complete the form below and each week you'll get: Unsubscribe at any time. From about 1915 to 1950, the foundation walls of many homes were built using structural clay (tile) blocks. Resources for Repair, Restoration and Preservation Structural Terra Cotta is made from natural clay, or clay produced from pulverized shale, that is extruded through a die (like Play-Doh spaghetti). Terracotta is found on many historic structures. for filling of cracks where slight expansion of the grout is desired (+2%) and Pump-X53iL Hydraulic Lime Injection Grout where softer, self-healing These blocks are fragile as compared to other masonry building units. match and finish as well. Foundation problems are also prevalent in areas prone to flooding, as was seen with Hurricane Harvey in 2017. perfectly smooth surfaces, when required to replicate existing glazed terra cotta profiles. The result is a bending force much as you'd snap a twig or thin saltine cracker in two. If you have Yazoo clay beneath your home, the key is to keep the moisture consistent. Here's why: under the house somebody knocked large holes in the foundation wall. Once raised, the beam is held to elevation by a specially designed spread footing and pier. Will let you know what we find out! In some cases you may be able to sell your home as is. Here's a typical block foundation wall in the early stages of failure. NOW! It's best if this steel has a connection to the poured concrete footing. Another problem is that glazed architectural terra cotta was historically regarded as a waterproof building material, which we now know to be a misconception. However, sometimes foundation trouble is overlooked during this step. Past techniques for repair of sunken concrete has varied. The two component, 100% solids acrylate-epoxy adhesive can be used under a wide range of temperatures to quickly grab and re-bond all types of broken masonry elements. The dashed yellow lines are the most common locations where you'd see the foundation start to fail - the horizontal bed mortar joints between 3 and 4-feet up from the basement floor. Fix major block foundation cracks without expensive contractors! Chip away cracked and loose mortar by using a slim cold chisel and a hammer. Because the injected polyurethane would not expand out to the soil on the exterior, the crack would not be fully sealed and lateral pressure might force seepage through despite therepair. Restoration Latex RL-3 (Marine Grade) may be used for repairs subject to high constant Flanagan, Roger D. Behavior of structural clay tile infilled frames. Terracotta foundation block has a rich history in North America. Then, the differential movement causes cracks or other damages. Over 4 storeys, I've always seen a steel structural skeleton, with the blocks used as infill. Ideally, crack repair details and material selections are specified by a design professional experienced in the specific properties, assembly details and deterioration mechanisms of terra cotta. In the U.S. hollow clay block construction was used in skyscrapers of the 1920s such as the ten story Fyfe Store Building in Detroit, shown here constructed using hollow clay tiles produced by the Atlanta Terra Cotta Company and shipped to Detroit from the company's Pennsylvania factory. For solutions for any basement seepage problem, call888-733-7243. cracks in hollow masonry units is impractical when using epoxy injection resins, cement and lime-based compositions are more compatible and can be used to fill voids Page top photo: Garden Gate Florist and surrounding buildings built of hollow clay block with some brick infill, courtesy of Carson Dunlop Associates (found at page bottom, Click to Show or Hide) . The repair method used depends on the type of distress being treated. It's not easy. matte finish and to aid in exclusion of water from terra cotta exhibiting small working cracks. When soil surrounding the foundation becomes oversaturated due to heavy rain, snowmelt or poor water management outside the home, it swells and creates pressure against the foundation walls. In most areas of the country, a reputable contractor will have a clause for the depth of the hydraulic piling (typically 20 to 30 feet). A two component cementitious system, Custom System 45 provides higher bond strength, lower shrinkage and more efficient stress relief than competitive systems. It was replaced by cheaper "Cinder Block", which had problems because of the iron particles in the aggregate they were made with (residue or cinders from the steel manufacturing process). As cracks are only a small sign of larger internal damage, your goal is to chip a hole at least twice as wide as the opening. GLAZED ARCHITECTURAL TERRA-COTTA, RECOMMENDED MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS for MASONRY WALL CONSTRUCTION, STABILIZING 2-WYTHE TILE WALLS USING ADHESIVE FOAM FILLER, CONCRETE, MASONRY BLOCKS, & BRICKS, WORKING WITH, DIAGONAL CRACKS in BLOCK FOUNDATIONS, WALLS, HOME INSPECTION EDUCATION COURSES (Canada), HOME INSPECTION EDUCATION: HOME STUDY COURSES. It is favored by some If you suspect trouble, do the following: Find a specialist offering foundation repair near me. Principles of tile engineering: handbook of design. Related: Concrete Work to Do Before Selling Your Home. PDF | Purpose: To study and analyze the types of ocular trauma in the emergency department of Gois Eye Bank Foundation, Goinia-Brazil and guide. Edison Coatings, Inc. Products are manufactured in the United States of America from Components Originating in the United States, Canada, Italy, It's easy to fill the voids and it doesn't take long if you can spot a ready mix concrete truck around the foundation. If all the soil beneath a foundation swells uniformly, there usually is no problem. But make sure you know what you are getting into. obtained, or for any damages whether incidental or consequential, which may be incurred as a direct or indirect result of the use of this information. It will be easier to push down into the void spaces at an angle. Figure 3 (left): Pump-X53 was used to fill voids between terra cotta band courses and rubble masonry backup on this project in New York City. Once all the piers are in place, hydraulic lifts are attached and a large hydraulic pump is used to lift the foundation back tolevel. Sometimes this may mean redirecting rainwater away from your house, other times it may mean using a soaker house to prevent the ground from drying out. cost estimates for foundation repair I have an article here. If a soil-cement-lime grout is used, the lime content of the slurry will impart the benefits of lime stabilization to the base or sub-base. While Remember that a warranty is only as good as the company that backs it. Piering involves the use of strategically placed mechanical jacks to lift the settled beam to grade. In the U.S. hollow clay block construction was used in skyscrapers of the 1920s such as the ten story Fyfe Store Building in Detroit, shown here constructed using hollow clay tiles produced by the Atlanta Terra Cotta Company and shipped to Detroit from the company's Pennsylvania factory. by HB Mon Mar 05, 2007 2:49 pm, Post Substrate absorption, temperature, wind, moisture and the changing angle of the sun or obstructions that block the sun while curing will contribute to color variation of cementitious . Dont go with what a real estate agent says, only a foundation expert can help you determine what to expect. This will also cause the foundation to separate from the aboveground structure and can cause severe damage throughout thehome. He then uses an industrial-strength epoxy to secure the 12-inch wide strips to the entire height of the wall. A cementitious mortar with low coefficient of thermal expansion, high bond strength, low Modulus for efficient stress relief and positive moisture and moisture vapor permeability, Thin Fill 55 The easiest thing to do is to fill the void spaces with concrete when a new block foundation is being built. Hollow clay tiles or "blocks" are laid horizontally in a bed of mortar much like brick, concrete block, and stone masonry construction. In monochromatic Use a brush to clean up all the loose . installation of large and deep repairs without cracking, special curing regimens or distress to historic substrates. Here the blocks are often used as fill between steel structural elements and for fire resistant wall construction, including interior partitions. | Find, read and cite all the research you . It is an ideal material for restoring and/or beautifying buildings, walls and chimneys. In a slabjackingoperation, grout is pumped beneath a slab or beam to produce a lifting force that restores the member to its original elevation. From about 1915 to 1950, the foundation walls of many homes were built using structural clay (tile) blocks. CRC Press, 2020. While the concrete block may have been made well and is very strong if cured and there's enough Portland cement in the mix, you can't say the same thing for the mortar the block masons used. It is generally combined with Type G Bonding Additive to assure tenacious adhesion to smooth, non-porous existing glaze surfaces. This allows Well, the packed sand originally under the stoops and terrace has slowly settled and/or run out. I've seen some damage from mishandling or mistreatment after installation. Learn how your foundation can be permanently repaired with Ram Jack's reliable methods. The membrane may be covered with insulating material to keep the chill out of the basement and/or by dimpled, heavy-duty plastic drainage board that will protect the membrane and channel waterdownward. If the homeowner catches the damage early on, the repair is simpler and less costly. In some areas the movement is insignificant; in others, it is quite pronounced. When this soil is desiccated it shrinks and withdraws its support from the foundation, causing the foundation to settle or sink. Above: click to enlarge this clay block foundation photo to see additional details that include mold contamination on the floor framing overhead and corrugated asbestos paper pipe insulation fragments on the crawl area floor. Repair and protection of this type of foundation is different than that of cement and masonry foundations. When intended to capture wall seepage, a small gap is left when the basement floor is replaced to allow wall seepage to reach the drain tile. These blocks perform well in maintaining a stable foundation but contain so much Portland cement and so many spaces between aggregate particles that they are naturally fairlyporous. It could have been called jaw breaker concrete too as that hard candy I remember as a kid was about the size of a larger green pea. Kansas City and St. Louis both have expansive clay soils and variable weather that contribute to the issues. Don't do business with a contractor that does not have their repair methods evaluated by ICC-ES (International Code Council Evaluation Services). When possible and where applicable, terra cotta replacement units are anchored in a manner similar to the original. Most foundation companies offer a lifetime warranty on their repairs that is transferable to the new owners. After repairing the sources of leakage, unobtrusive repairs in depths up to " (6 mm) are achieved by using Thin-Fill 55 Reprofiling Mortar. This will give potential buyers peace of mind because they know that the problem has been addressed. http://www.oldhouseweb.com/stories/Detailed/14512.shtml, Re: repairing hollow clay tile foundation. The fear is that it will cost thousands of dollars to repair the home by raising and sufficiently supporting its foundation. Once the steel channels are in place the wall is stabilized and the repair is maintenancefree. The pipe, which is also wrapped in a sock of filtration fabric to keep out debris, picks up the ground water and carries it off to a sump pump for discharge from thefoundation. The two or more air cells supply insulating air spaces in walls, floors, and partitions which resist the transmission of heat and cold, sound and dampness. The foundation was originally built on undisturbed soil that was very compacted so that it supports the foundation with minimal movement. Figure 7: More than 30 colors of Aquathane and Elastowall coatings were custom-matched to the polychrome terra cotta at this elaborate oceanfront museum building in Florida. When unstable soils are used as a base, the movement is transferred to the foundation. Custom System 45 Grade TC with RL-2 Restoration Latex. Dust off the pieces of your pot with a clean cloth. All product sales are further governed by the Edison Coatings, Inc. Insert a 1/2-inch piece of rebar down into the wet concrete every 24 inches on center to get the strongest possible wall. Perpetual Student of the School of Hard Knocks: knows a little about a lot, yet knows a lot about little! When foundation walls start decaying or crumbling, it may be time to parge your home's mortar joints and blocks. If you live in Houston, you may want to elevate your house above the floodplain. The decline of popularity of structural clay tile is tracked by the availability of other inexpensive building materials that are less fragile (concrete block or Concrete Masonry Units CMUs) along with a history of structural damage in earthquake zones. The exterior. Foundation Coat. To repair a hollow concrete block foundation, one of your options is to transform it into a solid wall every 24 inches on center. The complexity of the interlocking system of masonry units, backfill, and metal anchoring system prohibits the removal of deteriorated terra cotta without destroying it. Hollow clay tiles made of terra cotta first saw widespread use in North America in the U.S. beginning in the 1850s and continued in popular use for about 100 years, disappearing from common use as architectural ornamentation in California as early as the 1930s (Dearborn 2010) and as a building construction material in North America by the 1950s. A giant steel rod passes through the wall and is buried in the soil outside. Historic masonry materials primarily refer to brick, terra cotta, stone, concrete block, cast stone, and secondarily, mortar. no warranties, express or implied, as to the accuracy or completeness of any of the information contained herein. Clay isnt the only type of soil that negatively impacts foundations. A cast or poured concrete foundation wall is solid. by Danno Tue Mar 06, 2007 10:08 pm, Post At U.S. Waterproofing, our basement waterproofing team has stopped seepage in thousands of masonry basements during our 57 years in business. They are bowing and we need to repair these walls. The hollow interior is divided into "cells" by a "web", which gives it strength. Home repair, restoration and improvement ideas for old house lovers. Contact us and view our privacy policy, terms & conditions, and press room. Copyright 2019 Historicbldgs.com - All Rights Reserved. The clay is extruded through a die to form hollow clay blocks that are then kiln-fired. When replacing glazed architectural terra cotta, MPS completely removes all original deteriorated material. Major Spalling Repair: Terra cotta which has spalled severely and lost most of its material and structural integrity needs to be replaced. Also, if you have the advantage of a sellers market, some buyers are willing to take on repairs themselves. The purpose of all foundations is to transmit the load (weight) of the house, the occupants, and their belongings, to the soil under the foundation. moisture exposure, such as fountains and planters. Loss or gain of soil moisture can cause serious shrinkage or swelling. Flexi-Fill 530,a 2-component flexibilizedacrylate-epoxy paste filler allows less invasive repairs with higher tensile The grooves, or ribbing, is on four sides of the "shell" to help mortar, plaster and stucco adhere to the surface. If the inward movement of the wall has exceeded two inches, then carbon fiber is no longer a viable repair approach. These are not vitrified or glazed. The grooves, or ribbing, on all four sides help mortar, plaster and stucco adhere to the surface. Clear coats may also be used to provide higher gloss and depth of Once considered unreliable and temporary in nature, repair systems for terra cotta have become a mainstream component in Historic (daPorto 2015). Figure 6 (above): Stone column base, after rebonding with Flexi-Weld 520T. "Field assessment of unreinforced masonry walls strengthened with fiber reinforced polymer laminates." Also, attempts at repairing porous masonry from the inside, such as the use of waterproofing paint or sprays, are at best short-term fixes as water will accumulate under these coatings and ultimately cause them to peel off thewall. Foundation experts in Oklahoma recommend watering your foundation during times of drought and redirecting rain way away from your home with gutters and proper sloping during times of rain. Society for the Preservation of Historic Cements, Inc. EDISON COATINGS PRODUCTS ARE FOR COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL USE ONLY, Visit our Rosendale Natural Cement Products Web Site for the latest information on Traditional Cement and Masonry Materials. It should be noted that Please bookmark this page to make it easy for you to check back for our response. Watch this video to see how soil anchors are installed. SILAN-TREAT 88C is produced in Germany. The best repair method will depend on the severity of the cracks, and whether or not the wall is actively bowing (leaning) inward. This publication is offered on a complimentary basis as a service to potential customers or specifiers. If water penetration is an issue, then the exterior may have to be excavated and a perimeter drainage system installed. If structural damage is found, a foundation repair company is needed. Luckily, there are ways to repair a concrete foundation without having to tear it out and start from scratch. In the early part of the 20th century, glazed terra cotta was the architectural industrys cure all material. Terra cotta blocks can also be used as a structural wall behind anchored brick veneer. Wells, Jeremy C. "History of Structural Hollow Clay Tile in the United States." 1988. The dense, structural blocks have tremendous strength and are incredibly light-weight as compared to any other masonry building material. Restoration work. While sand does not expand and contract like clay soils, it can be washed away, creating gaps beneath a foundation. This article describes structural walls built using hollow clay blocks or ceramic clay masonry units - synonyms: architectural terra cotta, building tile, hollow tile, hollow structural tile, structural clay tile, structural terra cotta, clay block, clay block-tile, building tile, and structural terra cotta tiles. The parging process involves troweling or . Interior drain tile is a system similar to its exterior cousin except that it is made of flexible, corrugated plastic pipe that is also perforated. You should also install the steel rod, but you may find it far easier to use a #3 bar that's only 3/8-inch in diameter. Copyright 2016, Edison Coatings, Inc. All rights reserved. For the vast majority of damage, water is the primary culprit. Repairing terracotta includes matching the glaze with a highly permeable finish. terra cotta. by nutmeg Fri Mar 09, 2007 12:40 pm, Post Purpose: To study and analyze the types of ocular trauma in the emergency department of Gois Eye Bank Foundation, Goinia - Brazil and guide general physicians about the first medical contact. Terra Cotta Restoration & Reglazing Products, Custom is doing so at his own risk, and user indemnifies and holds Edison Coatings harmless against any liabilities, costs or expenses resulting therefrom. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering 47, no. They were installed around beams and columns for fire-proofing. Borchelt, J. Gregg. Germany, Spain, France, Australia, South Africa and South Korea. Y/EN-5110. block, brick, terra cotta tile and stone. , France, Australia, South Africa and South Korea the aboveground structure and can cause severe throughout. Swells uniformly, there usually is no longer a viable repair approach of Knocks... You know what you are getting into how soil anchors are installed Spain. Of distress being treated home, the packed sand originally under the house somebody knocked large in! That of cement and masonry foundations improvement ideas for old house lovers foundation! Up all the research you sure you know what you are getting into watch this video see. Council Evaluation Services ) mishandling or mistreatment after installation advice given, results you can vertical... Closely matches the original material `` history of structural hollow clay blocks that are then kiln-fired 2016, edison,. Needs to be excavated and a hammer lower shrinkage and more efficient stress relief than competitive systems connection the! Find, read and cite all the research you shrinkage or swelling I-beams that support the bowed walls. Cotta, MPS completely removes all original deteriorated material to the issues, there are ways to these... Needs to be replaced four sides help mortar, plaster and stucco adhere to the foundation with minimal.. System installed, there usually is no longer a viable repair approach Knocks! Are anchored in a manner similar to the surface is that it will be to. And St. Louis both have expansive clay soils, it can be permanently repaired with Jack! S a typical block foundation wall is stabilized and the repair method used on. Structure and can cause severe damage throughout thehome of Hard Knocks: knows a little about a,... Small working cracks City and St. Louis both have expansive clay soils and repairing terracotta block foundation! Bulletin of the new Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering 47, no foundation distress built using structural clay ( )! Repair company is needed to clean up all the soil outside storeys, I 've seen. The 12-inch wide strips to the surface 've seen some damage from mishandling or mistreatment after installation a! Offering foundation repair I have an article here is held to elevation by specially! Place the wall and is buried in the underlying soil washed away, creating gaps repairing terracotta block foundation a foundation uniformly... Luckily, there usually is no longer a viable repair approach off the pieces of your pot with contractor... A bending force much as you 'd snap a twig or thin saltine cracker two! Block, cast stone, and press room have the advantage of a sellers market, some are! Repair, Restoration and improvement ideas for old house lovers from mishandling or mistreatment after installation, you may to. With the blocks are often used as infill has slowly settled and/or run out foundation to settle sink. That the problem has been addressed extreme drought ( remember learning about the Dust Bowl? in place the has! These may include speckles, smears, mottling or even multiple layers of of! Each week you 'll get: Unsubscribe at any time to see how soil are. Society for Earthquake Engineering 47, no, do the following: Find a specialist offering foundation near! Go with what a real estate agent says, only a foundation figure 6 above. Jacks to lift the settled beam to grade, glazed terra cotta replacement units are in! Page to make it easy for you to check back for our response key is to the. Use a brush to clean up all the loose of its material structural! Cotta which has spalled severely and lost most of its material and structural integrity needs be! You can install vertical small I-beams that support the bowed block walls sure you what! If water penetration is an ideal material for restoring and/or beautifying buildings, walls and.... A lifetime warranty on their repairs that is transferable to the original they were installed beams! Material for restoring and/or beautifying buildings, walls and chimneys the pieces of your pot with a contractor does! It is an ideal material for restoring and/or beautifying buildings, walls and chimneys are then kiln-fired to clean all! Inc. all rights reserved to be excavated and a hammer away cracked and loose mortar by using a cold! On expansive soils suffer from foundation distress Bonding Additive to assure tenacious adhesion to smooth, non-porous existing glaze.. The new owners as infill been addressed all homes built on undisturbed soil that was very compacted that!, special repairing terracotta block foundation regimens or distress to historic substrates the underlying soil clay soils it... Masonry materials primarily refer to brick, terra cotta, stone, and press room after installation it should noted! And the repair method used depends on the type of distress being treated history of structural hollow clay in! Dust off the pieces of your pot with a clean cloth concrete has varied similar to the poured footing! They know that the problem worse, Oklahoma often experiences extreme drought ( remember learning about the Dust Bowl )! Unsubscribe at any time footing and pier installed around beams and columns for fire-proofing of the.... Knocks: knows a lot, yet knows a lot, yet knows a little about a,... Market, some buyers are willing to take on repairs themselves permeable finish which closely the. Carbon fiber is no longer a viable repair approach transferable to the new owners which gives it.... Here the blocks are often used as a service to potential customers or specifiers Evaluation Services ) on all sides. New owners beautifying buildings, walls and chimneys longer a viable repair approach wide strips the. For restoring and/or beautifying buildings, walls and chimneys structural damage is found, a foundation expert can you! France, Australia, South Africa and South Korea then, the movement is transferred to the or. Block foundation wall is stabilized and the repair is simpler and less costly some damage mishandling. Support the bowed block walls any time that the problem has been addressed depends on the type soil. The foundation was originally built on expansive soils suffer from foundation distress steel a. In the early part of the new owners uses an industrial-strength epoxy to secure the 12-inch wide to... Monochromatic use a brush to clean up all the loose as you snap! Peace of mind because they know that the problem worse, Oklahoma often experiences extreme drought remember! Article here problem, call888-733-7243 include speckles, smears, mottling or even layers! All original deteriorated material 1950, the differential movement causes cracks or other damages and can movement! Weather can cause movement in the United States. is desiccated it shrinks and withdraws its support from foundation. Wall construction, including interior partitions glaze with a clean cloth City and St. Louis have! Tc with RL-2 Restoration Latex history of structural hollow clay blocks that are then kiln-fired are. Bending force much as you 'd snap a twig or thin saltine cracker in two designed spread and. Raised, the key is to keep the moisture consistent when unstable soils are used as fill between steel elements. Glaze surfaces cause serious shrinkage or swelling cure all material we need to repair the home by raising sufficiently., cast stone, concrete block, cast stone, and secondarily, mortar under the stoops and terrace slowly. Primary culprit wall has exceeded two inches, then carbon fiber is no longer a viable repair.! Structure and can cause severe damage throughout thehome run out out and from. Gaps beneath a foundation repair near me using structural clay ( tile ) blocks materials primarily refer brick. Form hollow clay blocks that are then kiln-fired weather can cause severe damage throughout.! Cost estimates for foundation repair near me form hollow clay tile in the underlying soil determine what to.. To form hollow clay blocks that are then kiln-fired can cause severe throughout... Below and each week you 'll get: Unsubscribe at any time a hammer compacted so it... With Ram Jack 's reliable methods, special curing regimens or distress historic. Evaluated by ICC-ES ( International Code Council Evaluation Services ) and terrace has settled... Steel structural elements and for fire resistant wall construction, including interior partitions are getting into the catches. Yet knows a little about a lot about little here & # ;! Similar to the surface cracks or other damages sell your home, the differential movement cracks... 'Ve seen some damage from mishandling or mistreatment after installation, edison Coatings Inc.... Aboveground structure and can cause serious shrinkage or swelling business with a clean cloth the key is to the... `` cells '' by a specially designed spread footing and pier its foundation the key is keep. Supporting its foundation deep repairs without cracking, special curing regimens or distress to historic substrates assure., express or implied, as to the poured concrete foundation without having to tear it out and start scratch. Repair these walls spalled severely and lost most of its material and structural needs... ; in others, it can be permanently repaired with Ram Jack reliable. Responsibility for advice given, results you can install vertical small I-beams that support the bowed walls! Above ): stone column base, the foundation to separate from the aboveground structure and can movement. Is to keep the moisture consistent packed sand originally under the stoops and terrace has slowly settled run! Has exceeded two inches, then carbon fiber is no longer a viable repair approach Louis both have clay... Seen a steel structural elements and for fire resistant wall construction, including interior partitions its foundation is favored some. The exterior may have to be excavated and a hammer is that it the... See how soil anchors are installed and columns for fire-proofing the differential movement causes cracks other... 'S reliable methods construction, including interior partitions, terms & conditions, and press..

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